diff --git a/oi/type_graph/PassManager.cpp b/oi/type_graph/PassManager.cpp
index 6b63f7f..2b41589 100644
--- a/oi/type_graph/PassManager.cpp
+++ b/oi/type_graph/PassManager.cpp
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ void print(const TypeGraph& typeGraph) {
     return;
 
   std::stringstream out;
-  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.size()};
+  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.resetTracker(), typeGraph.size()};
   for (const auto& type : typeGraph.rootTypes()) {
     printer.print(type);
   }
diff --git a/oi/type_graph/Printer.cpp b/oi/type_graph/Printer.cpp
index bd7ba00..fdae0b0 100644
--- a/oi/type_graph/Printer.cpp
+++ b/oi/type_graph/Printer.cpp
@@ -19,7 +19,8 @@
 
 namespace oi::detail::type_graph {
 
-Printer::Printer(std::ostream& out, size_t numTypes) : out_(out) {
+Printer::Printer(std::ostream& out, NodeTracker& tracker, size_t numTypes)
+    : tracker_(tracker), out_(out) {
   if (numTypes == 0) {
     baseIndent_ = 0;
     return;
@@ -139,19 +140,16 @@ bool Printer::prefix(const Type* type) {
   int indent = baseIndent_ + depth_ * 2;
 
   if (type) {
-    if (auto it = nodeNums_.find(type); it != nodeNums_.end()) {
+    if (tracker_.visit(*type)) {
       // Node has already been printed - print a reference to it this time
       out_ << std::string(indent, ' ');
-      int nodeNum = it->second;
-      out_ << "[" << nodeNum << "]" << std::endl;
+      out_ << "[" << type->id() << "]" << std::endl;
       return true;
     }
 
-    int nodeNum = nextNodeNum_++;
-    std::string nodeId = "[" + std::to_string(nodeNum) + "]";
+    std::string nodeId = "[" + std::to_string(type->id()) + "]";
     out_ << nodeId;
     indent -= nodeId.size();
-    nodeNums_.insert({type, nodeNum});
   }
 
   out_ << std::string(indent, ' ');
diff --git a/oi/type_graph/Printer.h b/oi/type_graph/Printer.h
index 82f911d..4d7fa81 100644
--- a/oi/type_graph/Printer.h
+++ b/oi/type_graph/Printer.h
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include <ostream>
-#include <unordered_map>
 
+#include "NodeTracker.h"
 #include "Types.h"
 #include "Visitor.h"
 
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ namespace oi::detail::type_graph {
  */
 class Printer : public ConstVisitor {
  public:
-  Printer(std::ostream& out, size_t numTypes);
+  Printer(std::ostream& out, NodeTracker& tracker, size_t numTypes);
 
   void print(const Type& type);
 
@@ -53,11 +53,10 @@ class Printer : public ConstVisitor {
   void print_qualifiers(const QualifierSet& qualifiers);
   static std::string align_str(uint64_t align);
 
+  NodeTracker& tracker_;
   std::ostream& out_;
   int baseIndent_;
   int depth_ = -1;
-  int nextNodeNum_ = 0;
-  std::unordered_map<const Type*, int> nodeNums_;
 };
 
 }  // namespace oi::detail::type_graph
diff --git a/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.cpp b/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.cpp
index 49774eb..13a6b6b 100644
--- a/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.cpp
+++ b/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.cpp
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
 
 namespace oi::detail::type_graph {
 
-NodeTracker& TypeGraph::resetTracker() noexcept {
+NodeTracker& TypeGraph::resetTracker() const noexcept {
   tracker_.reset();
   tracker_.resize(size());
   return tracker_;
diff --git a/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.h b/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.h
index ec156eb..36b430a 100644
--- a/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.h
+++ b/oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.h
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ class TypeGraph {
     rootTypes_.push_back(type);
   }
 
-  NodeTracker& resetTracker() noexcept;
+  NodeTracker& resetTracker() const noexcept;
 
   // Override of the generic makeType function that returns singleton Primitive
   // objects
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@ class TypeGraph {
   template <typename T, typename... Args>
   T& makeType(NodeId id, Args&&... args) {
     static_assert(T::has_node_id, "Unnecessary node ID provided");
+    next_id_ = std::max(next_id_, id + 1);
     auto type_unique_ptr = std::make_unique<T>(id, std::forward<Args>(args)...);
     auto type_raw_ptr = type_unique_ptr.get();
     types_.push_back(std::move(type_unique_ptr));
@@ -87,7 +88,7 @@ class TypeGraph {
   std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<Type>> rootTypes_;
   // Store all type objects in vectors for ownership. Order is not significant.
   std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Type>> types_;
-  NodeTracker tracker_;
+  mutable NodeTracker tracker_;
   NodeId next_id_ = 0;
 };
 
diff --git a/test/test_add_children.cpp b/test/test_add_children.cpp
index 4ce2e26..d83ac0e 100644
--- a/test/test_add_children.cpp
+++ b/test/test_add_children.cpp
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ std::string AddChildrenTest::run(std::string_view function,
   pass.run(typeGraph);
 
   std::stringstream out;
-  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.size()};
+  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.resetTracker(), typeGraph.size()};
   printer.print(type);
 
   return out.str();
@@ -35,8 +35,8 @@ std::string AddChildrenTest::run(std::string_view function,
 TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, SimpleStruct) {
   // Should do nothing
   test("oid_test_case_simple_struct", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: SimpleStruct (size: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: SimpleStruct (size: 16)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 4)
@@ -49,10 +49,10 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, SimpleStruct) {
 TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritanceStatic) {
   // Should do nothing
   test("oid_test_case_inheritance_access_public", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: Public (size: 8)
+[2] Pointer
+[0]   Class: Public (size: 8)
         Parent (offset: 0)
-[2]       Class: Base (size: 4)
+[1]       Class: Base (size: 4)
             Member: base_int (offset: 0)
               Primitive: int32_t
         Member: public_int (offset: 4)
@@ -62,8 +62,8 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritanceStatic) {
 
 TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
   testMultiCompiler("oid_test_case_inheritance_polymorphic_a_as_a", R"(
-[0]  Pointer
-[1]    Class: A (size: 16)
+[1]  Pointer
+[0]    Class: A (size: 16)
          Member: _vptr$A (offset: 0)
            Primitive: uintptr_t
          Member: int_a (offset: 8)
@@ -73,19 +73,19 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
          Function: A
          Function: A
          Child
-[2]        Class: B (size: 40)
+[8]        Class: B (size: 40)
              Parent (offset: 0)
-               [1]
+               [0]
              Member: vec_b (offset: 16)
-[3]            Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[4]            Container: std::vector (size: 24)
                  Param
                    Primitive: int32_t
                  Param
-[4]                Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[5]                Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
                      Param
                        Primitive: int32_t
                      Parent (offset: 0)
-[5]                    Typedef: __allocator_base<int>
+[7]                    Typedef: __allocator_base<int>
 [6]                      Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                            Param
                              Primitive: int32_t
@@ -105,9 +105,9 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
              Function: B
              Function: B
              Child
-[7]            Class: C (size: 48)
+[10]           Class: C (size: 48)
                  Parent (offset: 0)
-                   [2]
+                   [8]
                  Member: int_c (offset: 40)
                    Primitive: int32_t
                  Function: ~C (virtual)
@@ -116,8 +116,8 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
                  Function: C
 )",
                     R"(
-[0]  Pointer
-[1]    Class: A (size: 16)
+[1]  Pointer
+[0]    Class: A (size: 16)
          Member: _vptr.A (offset: 0)
            Primitive: uintptr_t
          Member: int_a (offset: 8)
@@ -128,17 +128,17 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
          Function: ~A (virtual)
          Function: myfunc (virtual)
          Child
-[2]        Class: B (size: 40)
+[7]        Class: B (size: 40)
              Parent (offset: 0)
-               [1]
+               [0]
              Member: vec_b (offset: 16)
-[3]            Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[4]            Container: std::vector (size: 24)
                  Param
                    Primitive: int32_t
                  Param
-[4]                Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[5]                Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
                      Parent (offset: 0)
-[5]                    Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[6]                    Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                          Param
                            Primitive: int32_t
                          Function: new_allocator
@@ -158,9 +158,9 @@ TEST_F(AddChildrenTest, InheritancePolymorphic) {
              Function: ~B (virtual)
              Function: myfunc (virtual)
              Child
-[6]            Class: C (size: 48)
+[9]            Class: C (size: 48)
                  Parent (offset: 0)
-                   [2]
+                   [7]
                  Member: int_c (offset: 40)
                    Primitive: int32_t
                  Function: operator=
diff --git a/test/test_codegen.cpp b/test/test_codegen.cpp
index 0f83055..50dddd0 100644
--- a/test/test_codegen.cpp
+++ b/test/test_codegen.cpp
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@
 #include "TypeGraphParser.h"
 #include "mocks.h"
 #include "oi/CodeGen.h"
-#include "oi/type_graph/Printer.h"
 #include "oi/type_graph/TypeGraph.h"
 #include "oi/type_graph/Types.h"
 #include "type_graph_utils.h"
@@ -32,13 +31,13 @@ void testTransform(OICodeGen::Config& config,
   }
 
   // Validate input formatting
-  check(typeGraph.rootTypes(), input, "parsing input graph");
+  check(typeGraph, input, "parsing input graph");
 
   MockSymbolService symbols;
   CodeGen codegen{config, symbols};
   codegen.transform(typeGraph);
 
-  check(typeGraph.rootTypes(), expectedAfter, "after transform");
+  check(typeGraph, expectedAfter, "after transform");
 }
 
 void testTransform(std::string_view input, std::string_view expectedAfter) {
@@ -100,7 +99,7 @@ TEST(CodeGenTest, TransformContainerAllocatorParamInParent) {
         Primitive: int32_t
       Param
         DummyAllocator (size: 0)
-[1]       Container: std::pair<int32_t const, int32_t> (size: 8)
+[3]       Container: std::pair<int32_t const, int32_t> (size: 8)
             Param
               Primitive: int32_t
               Qualifiers: const
diff --git a/test/test_drgn_parser.cpp b/test/test_drgn_parser.cpp
index b56b3d7..4e8aedd 100644
--- a/test/test_drgn_parser.cpp
+++ b/test/test_drgn_parser.cpp
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ std::string DrgnParserTest::run(std::string_view function,
   Type& type = drgnParser.parse(drgnRoot);
 
   std::stringstream out;
-  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.size()};
+  Printer printer{out, typeGraph.resetTracker(), typeGraph.size()};
   printer.print(type);
 
   return out.str();
@@ -105,8 +105,8 @@ void DrgnParserTest::testMultiCompilerContains(
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleStruct) {
   test("oid_test_case_simple_struct", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: SimpleStruct (size: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: SimpleStruct (size: 16)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 4)
@@ -118,8 +118,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleStruct) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleClass) {
   test("oid_test_case_simple_class", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: SimpleClass (size: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: SimpleClass (size: 16)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 4)
@@ -131,8 +131,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleClass) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleUnion) {
   test("oid_test_case_simple_union", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Union: SimpleUnion (size: 8)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Union: SimpleUnion (size: 8)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 0)
@@ -144,10 +144,10 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, SimpleUnion) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Inheritance) {
   test("oid_test_case_inheritance_access_public", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: Public (size: 8)
+[2] Pointer
+[0]   Class: Public (size: 8)
         Parent (offset: 0)
-[2]       Class: Base (size: 4)
+[1]       Class: Base (size: 4)
             Member: base_int (offset: 0)
               Primitive: int32_t
         Member: public_int (offset: 4)
@@ -157,26 +157,26 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Inheritance) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, InheritanceMultiple) {
   test("oid_test_case_inheritance_multiple_a", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Derived_2 (size: 24)
+[6] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Derived_2 (size: 24)
         Parent (offset: 0)
-[2]       Struct: Base_1 (size: 4)
+[1]       Struct: Base_1 (size: 4)
             Member: a (offset: 0)
               Primitive: int32_t
         Parent (offset: 4)
-[3]       Struct: Derived_1 (size: 12)
+[2]       Struct: Derived_1 (size: 12)
             Parent (offset: 0)
-[4]           Struct: Base_2 (size: 4)
+[3]           Struct: Base_2 (size: 4)
                 Member: b (offset: 0)
                   Primitive: int32_t
             Parent (offset: 4)
-[5]           Struct: Base_3 (size: 4)
+[4]           Struct: Base_3 (size: 4)
                 Member: c (offset: 0)
                   Primitive: int32_t
             Member: d (offset: 8)
               Primitive: int32_t
         Parent (offset: 16)
-[6]       Struct: Base_4 (size: 4)
+[5]       Struct: Base_4 (size: 4)
             Member: e (offset: 0)
               Primitive: int32_t
         Member: f (offset: 20)
@@ -186,17 +186,17 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, InheritanceMultiple) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Container) {
   testMultiCompiler("oid_test_case_std_vector_int_empty", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[4] Pointer
+[0]   Container: std::vector (size: 24)
         Param
           Primitive: int32_t
         Param
-[2]       Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[1]       Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
             Param
               Primitive: int32_t
             Parent (offset: 0)
 [3]           Typedef: __allocator_base<int>
-[4]             Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[2]             Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                   Param
                     Primitive: int32_t
                   Function: new_allocator
@@ -212,14 +212,14 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Container) {
             Function: deallocate
 )",
                     R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[3] Pointer
+[0]   Container: std::vector (size: 24)
         Param
           Primitive: int32_t
         Param
-[2]       Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[1]       Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
             Parent (offset: 0)
-[3]           Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[2]           Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                 Param
                   Primitive: int32_t
                 Function: new_allocator
@@ -257,36 +257,36 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, UnscopedEnum) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Typedef) {
   test("oid_test_case_typedefs_c_style", R"(
-[0] Typedef: TdUInt64
+[2] Typedef: TdUInt64
 [1]   Typedef: uint64_t
-[2]     Typedef: __uint64_t
+[0]     Typedef: __uint64_t
           Primitive: uint64_t
 )");
 }
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Using) {
   test("oid_test_case_typedefs_using", R"(
-[0] Typedef: UsingUInt64
+[2] Typedef: UsingUInt64
 [1]   Typedef: uint64_t
-[2]     Typedef: __uint64_t
+[0]     Typedef: __uint64_t
           Primitive: uint64_t
 )");
 }
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ArrayMember) {
   test("oid_test_case_arrays_member_int10", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Foo10 (size: 40)
+[2] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Foo10 (size: 40)
         Member: arr (offset: 0)
-[2]       Array: (length: 10)
+[1]       Array: (length: 10)
             Primitive: int32_t
 )");
 }
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ArrayRef) {
   test("oid_test_case_arrays_ref_int10", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Array: (length: 10)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Array: (length: 10)
         Primitive: int32_t
 )");
 }
@@ -300,23 +300,23 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ArrayDirect) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Pointer) {
   test("oid_test_case_pointers_struct_primitive_ptrs", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: PrimitivePtrs (size: 24)
+[3] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: PrimitivePtrs (size: 24)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 8)
-[2]       Pointer
+[1]       Pointer
             Primitive: int32_t
         Member: c (offset: 16)
-[3]       Pointer
+[2]       Pointer
             Primitive: void
 )");
 }
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, PointerNoFollow) {
   test("oid_test_case_pointers_struct_primitive_ptrs", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: PrimitivePtrs (size: 24)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: PrimitivePtrs (size: 24)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 8)
@@ -336,20 +336,20 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, PointerIncomplete) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, Cycle) {
   test("oid_test_case_cycles_raw_ptr", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: RawNode (size: 16)
+[2] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: RawNode (size: 16)
         Member: value (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: next (offset: 8)
-[2]       Pointer
-            [1]
+[1]       Pointer
+            [0]
 )");
 }
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateInt) {
   test("oid_test_case_templates_int", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: TemplatedClass1<int> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: TemplatedClass1<int> (size: 4)
         Param
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: val (offset: 0)
@@ -359,19 +359,19 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateInt) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateVector) {
   testMultiCompiler("oid_test_case_templates_vector", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: TemplatedClass1<std::vector<int, std::allocator<int> > > (size: 24)
+[5] Pointer
+[0]   Class: TemplatedClass1<std::vector<int, std::allocator<int> > > (size: 24)
         Param
-[2]       Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[1]       Container: std::vector (size: 24)
             Param
               Primitive: int32_t
             Param
-[3]           Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[2]           Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
                 Param
                   Primitive: int32_t
                 Parent (offset: 0)
 [4]               Typedef: __allocator_base<int>
-[5]                 Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[3]                 Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                       Param
                         Primitive: int32_t
                       Function: new_allocator
@@ -386,21 +386,21 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateVector) {
                 Function: allocate
                 Function: deallocate
         Member: val (offset: 0)
-          [2]
+          [1]
         Function: ~TemplatedClass1
         Function: TemplatedClass1
 )",
                     R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: TemplatedClass1<std::vector<int, std::allocator<int> > > (size: 24)
+[4] Pointer
+[0]   Class: TemplatedClass1<std::vector<int, std::allocator<int> > > (size: 24)
         Param
-[2]       Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[1]       Container: std::vector (size: 24)
             Param
               Primitive: int32_t
             Param
-[3]           Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[2]           Class: allocator<int> (size: 1)
                 Parent (offset: 0)
-[4]               Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
+[3]               Class: new_allocator<int> (size: 1)
                     Param
                       Primitive: int32_t
                     Function: new_allocator
@@ -415,7 +415,7 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateVector) {
                 Function: allocate
                 Function: deallocate
         Member: val (offset: 0)
-          [2]
+          [1]
         Function: TemplatedClass1
         Function: ~TemplatedClass1
 )");
@@ -423,10 +423,10 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateVector) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateTwo) {
   test("oid_test_case_templates_two", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: TemplatedClass2<ns_templates::Foo, int> (size: 12)
+[3] Pointer
+[0]   Class: TemplatedClass2<ns_templates::Foo, int> (size: 12)
         Param
-[2]       Struct: Foo (size: 8)
+[1]       Struct: Foo (size: 8)
             Member: a (offset: 0)
               Primitive: int32_t
             Member: b (offset: 4)
@@ -434,11 +434,11 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateTwo) {
         Param
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: tc1 (offset: 0)
-[3]       Class: TemplatedClass1<ns_templates::Foo> (size: 8)
+[2]       Class: TemplatedClass1<ns_templates::Foo> (size: 8)
             Param
-              [2]
+              [1]
             Member: val (offset: 0)
-              [2]
+              [1]
         Member: val2 (offset: 8)
           Primitive: int32_t
 )");
@@ -446,12 +446,12 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateTwo) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateValue) {
   test("oid_test_case_templates_value", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: TemplatedClassVal<3> (size: 12)
+[2] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: TemplatedClassVal<3> (size: 12)
         Param
           Value: 3
         Member: arr (offset: 0)
-[2]       Array: (length: 3)
+[1]       Array: (length: 3)
             Primitive: int32_t
 )");
 }
@@ -459,14 +459,14 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, ClassTemplateValue) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValue) {
   testMultiCompilerContains("oid_test_case_enums_params_scoped_enum_val",
                             R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: MyClass<ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum::One> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: MyClass<ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum::One> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum::One
 )",
                             R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: MyClass<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum)1> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: MyClass<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum)1> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::ScopedEnum::One
 )");
@@ -475,14 +475,14 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValue) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValueGaps) {
   testMultiCompilerContains("oid_test_case_enums_params_scoped_enum_val_gaps",
                             R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: ClassGaps<ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::Twenty> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: ClassGaps<ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::Twenty> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::Twenty
 )",
                             R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: ClassGaps<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps)20> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: ClassGaps<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps)20> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::Twenty
 )");
@@ -491,14 +491,14 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValueGaps) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValueNegative) {
   testMultiCompilerContains(
       "oid_test_case_enums_params_scoped_enum_val_negative", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: ClassGaps<ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::MinusTwo> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: ClassGaps<ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::MinusTwo> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::MinusTwo
 )",
       R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: ClassGaps<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps)-2> (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: ClassGaps<(ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps)-2> (size: 4)
         Param
           Value: ns_enums_params::MyNS::EnumWithGaps::MinusTwo
 )");
@@ -519,8 +519,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, TemplateEnumValueNegative) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, StructAlignment) {
   GTEST_SKIP() << "Alignment not reported by drgn yet";
   test("oid_test_case_alignment_struct", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Align16 (size: 16, align: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Align16 (size: 16, align: 16)
         Member: c (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int8_t
 )");
@@ -529,8 +529,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, StructAlignment) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, MemberAlignment) {
   GTEST_SKIP() << "Alignment not reported by drgn yet";
   test("oid_test_case_alignment_member_alignment", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: MemberAlignment (size: 64)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: MemberAlignment (size: 64)
         Member: c (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int8_t
         Member: c32 (offset: 32, align: 32)
@@ -540,8 +540,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, MemberAlignment) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, VirtualFunctions) {
   testMultiCompiler("oid_test_case_inheritance_polymorphic_a_as_a", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: A (size: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: A (size: 16)
         Member: _vptr$A (offset: 0)
           Primitive: uintptr_t
         Member: int_a (offset: 8)
@@ -552,8 +552,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, VirtualFunctions) {
         Function: A
 )",
                     R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Class: A (size: 16)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Class: A (size: 16)
         Member: _vptr.A (offset: 0)
           Primitive: uintptr_t
         Member: int_a (offset: 8)
@@ -568,8 +568,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, VirtualFunctions) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsSingle) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_single", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Single (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Single (size: 4)
         Member: bitfield (offset: 0, bitsize: 3)
           Primitive: int32_t
 )");
@@ -577,8 +577,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsSingle) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsWithinBytes) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_within_bytes", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: WithinBytes (size: 2)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: WithinBytes (size: 2)
         Member: a (offset: 0, bitsize: 3)
           Primitive: int8_t
         Member: b (offset: 0.375, bitsize: 5)
@@ -590,8 +590,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsWithinBytes) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsStraddleBytes) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_straddle_bytes", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: StraddleBytes (size: 3)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: StraddleBytes (size: 3)
         Member: a (offset: 0, bitsize: 7)
           Primitive: int8_t
         Member: b (offset: 1, bitsize: 7)
@@ -603,8 +603,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsStraddleBytes) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsMixed) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_mixed", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Mixed (size: 12)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Mixed (size: 12)
         Member: a (offset: 0)
           Primitive: int32_t
         Member: b (offset: 4, bitsize: 4)
@@ -621,8 +621,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsMixed) {
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsMoreBitsThanType) {
   GTEST_SKIP() << "drgn errors out";
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_more_bits_than_type", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: MoreBitsThanType (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: MoreBitsThanType (size: 4)
         Member: a (offset: 0, bitsize: 8)
           Primitive: int8_t
 )");
@@ -630,8 +630,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsMoreBitsThanType) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsZeroBits) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_zero_bits", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: ZeroBits (size: 2)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: ZeroBits (size: 2)
         Member: b1 (offset: 0, bitsize: 3)
           Primitive: int8_t
         Member: b2 (offset: 1, bitsize: 2)
@@ -641,8 +641,8 @@ TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsZeroBits) {
 
 TEST_F(DrgnParserTest, BitfieldsEnum) {
   test("oid_test_case_bitfields_enum", R"(
-[0] Pointer
-[1]   Struct: Enum (size: 4)
+[1] Pointer
+[0]   Struct: Enum (size: 4)
         Member: e (offset: 0, bitsize: 2)
           Enum: MyEnum (size: 4)
         Member: f (offset: 0.25, bitsize: 4)
diff --git a/test/test_flattener.cpp b/test/test_flattener.cpp
index fb26382..b958b33 100644
--- a/test/test_flattener.cpp
+++ b/test/test_flattener.cpp
@@ -363,7 +363,7 @@ TEST(FlattenerTest, MemberOfParent) {
       Member: b (offset: 0)
         Primitive: int32_t
       Member: c (offset: 4)
-[1]     Class: ClassC (size: 4)
+[2]     Class: ClassC (size: 4)
           Member: c (offset: 0)
             Primitive: int32_t
       Member: a (offset: 8)
@@ -771,7 +771,7 @@ TEST(FlattenerTest, ParentClassAndContainer) {
       Member: b (offset: 0)
         Primitive: int32_t
       Member: __oi_parent (offset: 8)
-[1]     Container: std::vector (size: 24)
+[2]     Container: std::vector (size: 24)
           Param
             Primitive: int32_t
 )");
@@ -809,7 +809,7 @@ TEST(FlattenerTest, AllocatorParamInParent) {
       Param
 [1]     Struct: MyAlloc<std::pair<const int, int>> (size: 1)
           Param
-[2]         Container: std::pair (size: 8)
+[3]         Container: std::pair (size: 8)
               Param
                 Primitive: int32_t
                 Qualifiers: const
diff --git a/test/test_remove_top_level_pointer.cpp b/test/test_remove_top_level_pointer.cpp
index a719105..6e6b4f9 100644
--- a/test/test_remove_top_level_pointer.cpp
+++ b/test/test_remove_top_level_pointer.cpp
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ TEST(RemoveTopLevelPointerTest, TopLevelPointerRemoved) {
           Primitive: int32_t
 )",
        R"(
-[0] Class: MyClass (size: 4)
+[1] Class: MyClass (size: 4)
       Member: n (offset: 0)
         Primitive: int32_t
 )");
diff --git a/test/test_type_identifier.cpp b/test/test_type_identifier.cpp
index 5cf9132..fc9ec13 100644
--- a/test/test_type_identifier.cpp
+++ b/test/test_type_identifier.cpp
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ TEST(TypeIdentifierTest, PassThroughTypes) {
       Param
         Primitive: int32_t
       Param
-[1]     Container: std::allocator (size: 1)
+[2]     Container: std::allocator (size: 1)
           Param
             Primitive: int32_t
 )");
diff --git a/test/type_graph_utils.cpp b/test/type_graph_utils.cpp
index a8c9889..3a96552 100644
--- a/test/type_graph_utils.cpp
+++ b/test/type_graph_utils.cpp
@@ -17,13 +17,13 @@ using type_graph::TypeGraph;
 template <typename T>
 using ref = std::reference_wrapper<T>;
 
-void check(const std::vector<ref<Type>>& types,
+void check(const TypeGraph& typeGraph,
            std::string_view expected,
            std::string_view comment) {
   std::stringstream out;
-  type_graph::Printer printer(out, types.size());
+  type_graph::Printer printer(out, typeGraph.resetTracker(), typeGraph.size());
 
-  for (const auto& type : types) {
+  for (const auto& type : typeGraph.rootTypes()) {
     printer.print(type);
   }
 
@@ -45,52 +45,15 @@ void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
   }
 
   // Validate input formatting
-  check(typeGraph.rootTypes(), input, "parsing input graph");
-
-  // Run pass and check results
-  test(pass, typeGraph.rootTypes(), expectedAfter);
-}
-
-void testNoChange(type_graph::Pass pass, std::string_view input) {
-  input.remove_prefix(1);  // Remove initial '\n'
-  TypeGraph typeGraph;
-  TypeGraphParser parser{typeGraph};
-  try {
-    parser.parse(input);
-  } catch (const TypeGraphParserError& err) {
-    FAIL() << "Error parsing input graph: " << err.what();
-  }
-
-  // Validate input formatting
-  check(typeGraph.rootTypes(), input, "parsing input graph");
-
-  // Run pass and check results
-  test(pass, typeGraph.rootTypes(), input);
-}
-
-void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
-          std::vector<ref<Type>> rootTypes,
-          std::string_view expectedBefore,
-          std::string_view expectedAfter) {
-  if (expectedBefore.data()) {
-    check(rootTypes, expectedBefore, "before running pass");
-  }
-
-  TypeGraph typeGraph;
-  for (const auto& type : rootTypes) {
-    typeGraph.addRoot(type);
-  }
+  check(typeGraph, input, "parsing input graph");
 
   pass.run(typeGraph);
 
-  // Must use typeGraph's root types here, as the pass may have modified them
-  check(typeGraph.rootTypes(), expectedAfter, "after running pass");
+  check(typeGraph, expectedAfter, "after running pass");
 }
 
-void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
-          std::vector<ref<Type>> rootTypes,
-          std::string_view expectedAfter) {
-  test(pass, rootTypes, {}, expectedAfter);
+void testNoChange(type_graph::Pass pass, std::string_view input) {
+  test(pass, input, input);
 }
 
 Container getVector(NodeId id) {
diff --git a/test/type_graph_utils.h b/test/type_graph_utils.h
index 6175e04..57654da 100644
--- a/test/type_graph_utils.h
+++ b/test/type_graph_utils.h
@@ -8,11 +8,12 @@
 
 namespace oi::detail::type_graph {
 class Pass;
+class TypeGraph;
 }  // namespace oi::detail::type_graph
 
 using namespace oi::detail;
 
-void check(const std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<type_graph::Type>>& types,
+void check(const type_graph::TypeGraph& typeGraph,
            std::string_view expected,
            std::string_view comment);
 
@@ -22,15 +23,6 @@ void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
 
 void testNoChange(type_graph::Pass pass, std::string_view input);
 
-void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
-          std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<type_graph::Type>> rootTypes,
-          std::string_view expectedBefore,
-          std::string_view expectedAfter);
-
-void test(type_graph::Pass pass,
-          std::vector<std::reference_wrapper<type_graph::Type>> rootTypes,
-          std::string_view expectedAfter);
-
 type_graph::Container getVector(type_graph::NodeId id = 0);
 type_graph::Container getMap(type_graph::NodeId id = 0);
 type_graph::Container getList(type_graph::NodeId id = 0);